Such an obsession on the part of Narcissus with his own self-image led psychologists to adopt his name to describe the condition whereby individuals develop a similar unhealthy and destructive (to self or others) obsession with their own image as Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD; American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Subsequent clinical theories have agreed with the importance of a lack of empathy (Kohut, 1977), combined with parental overprotectiveness (Kernberg, 1975), and overindulgence (Millon, 1981) in the emergence of narcissism. Karterud S., ien M., Pedersen G. (2011). Blinkhorn V., Lyons M., Almond L. (2015). Jane J. S., Oltmanns T. F., South S. C., Turkheimer E. (2007). In a similar study, Webster et al. The most prominent theoreticians in the conceptualisation of narcissism were Kernberg (1975) and Kohut (1977), whose divergent aetiological formulations and nosological accounts of narcissism painted vastly different clinical pictures. Independent of any actual differences between males and females in classifications of PDs, misdiagnoses of PDs may partly contribute to the differential prevalence rates observed in males and females (Schulte & Habel, 2018). Rory MacLean, Edinburgh Napier University, School of Applied Sciences, Edinburgh, UK. Evidence for the criterion validity and clinical utility of the pathological narcissism inventory. Freud S. (1914/1957). Similarly, Capron (2004) examined recalled pampering styles (e.g. Sex bias in classifying borderline and narcissistic personality disorder. On the other hand, such a framework can pinpoint gender-specific expressions in the presentation of narcissistic personality attributes, thereby constituting an important step towards a conceptual model inclusive of gender factors in these manifestations. Green A., MacLean R., Charles K. (2020. a). Personality profiles of women and men arrested for domestic violence: An analysis of similarities and differences. It may be conjectured, although not considered by Barnett and Powell (2016), that these gender-based differences indicate the nature of narcissistic grandiosity and vulnerability. Yet, he killed at least 30 people across the United States. These findings indicate that diagnosticians may be more likely to treat patients who present narcissistic vulnerability. A later research study by Anderson et al. In short, results from a dyadic analysis (coded by observers) from a single lab visit revealed that women with higher levels of narcissism demonstrated significantly higher levels of hostile and angry communication patterns. If this is the case, then existing gender differences would suggest parents are using parenting styles associated with grandiose narcissism more frequently with boys than with girls (Grijalva et al., 2015). A. It is echoed here that failure to appreciate salient gender differences in the expression of narcissism will likely result in enormous negative consequences across diagnostic assessment, treatment, gender-appropriate interventions for offending behaviours, and the necessary theoretical knowledge to inform these identified areas of concern. Narcissistic personality disorder involves a pattern of self-centered, arrogant thinking and behavior, a lack of empathy and consideration for other people, and an excessive need for admiration. Given the significance of gender roles in the expression of personality disorders, other research has explored whether college students higher in masculinity or femininity . Simmons C. A., Lehmann P., Cobb N., Fowler C. R. (2005). Reich W. (1933/1949). Narcissistic subtypes and contingent self-esteem: Do all narcissists base their self-esteem on the same domains? Further research exploring the exploitativeness/entitlement sub-scale of narcissism in IPV has suggested that entitled and exploitative females and males may differ in their expression of aggression in intimate relationships (Southard, 2010). Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV narcissistic personality disorder: Results from the wave 2 national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. The preponderance of the empirical research in the social/personality field has relied heavily upon the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI), which is based on the DSM-III criteria, as the main assessment indicator of narcissism (Cain et al., 2008). In other words, clinicians did not consider the DSM PD criteria to be more (or less) maladaptive for a man than for a woman. In contrast to Caprons findings, Lyons et al. Cleopatra 6. Narcissists tend to keep their eyes on the prize that they feel others would prize. One of his admirers was Echo, a cursed nymph only able to speak by repeating the words of others. This may reflect how differences in parental approaches based on child gender follow in line with particular types of socialisation designed by parents to make boys more agentic (e.g., by withholding affection, aiming to make boys more independent), and to make girls more communal and caring. For instance, Freud (1914/1957) posited that narcissism emerged through failure of empathic response from the parent (cold and distant), or conversely, through parents overly indulging the child. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies the DSM definition which tends to diagnose men; Wright et al., 2013) and vulnerable narcissism (i.e. (2002) also found NPD to be a predictor of current incarceration for violent crime including murder. The higher order factor structure and gender invariance of the pathological narcissism inventory. In so doing, the field can move towards a more robust and integrated literature on narcissism that is inclusive of gender issues. Moving forward, the FFNI approach offers a potential advance in the conceptualisation of narcissism. Gaslighting is a form of persistent manipulation. Ackerman R. A., Hands A. J., Donnellan M. B., Hopwood C. J., Witt E. A. As this review has demonstrated, the nature and emergence of narcissism is most likely experienced differently in men and women, consequently resulting in particular implications for what has been traditionally understood and conceptualised as narcissism and for the related research which builds on these trait constellations (DSM/NPI). Regression analysis showed that, when considering gender with all other variables, inconsistent approaches to discipline were the only parenting dimension that predicted unique variance in vulnerable narcissism, with a main effect also present for gender (i.e., females scoring higher). Overall, the literature in this area accentuate the importance for future research to employ a multidimensional assessment of narcissism and parenting practices by both parents in order to more comprehensively understand and disentangle the aetiology of narcissism across gender. Narcissistic personality disorder therapy usually includes some type of psychotherapy, such as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), family therapy, or group therapy. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted exploitativeness/entitlement) was a stronger predictor of serious and aggressive sexual coercive behaviour than it was for males. (1987). 1 Typical NPD symptoms may display differently and less severely in women, making it harder to detect them. (2006) found significant gender differences regarding associations of parenting with unhealthy grandiose (total NPI score after variance associated with self-esteem is partialled out). This approach has been partially implemented in the DSM-5 with the aim to increase discriminant validity of PD diagnoses. In contrast, Freud (1914/1957) denoted narcissism as a sexual perversion, a universal stage of psycho-sexual development and a component of self-preservation, as well as an indicator of a pathological character. Grilo et al. Grandiose and vulnerable narcissism and the DSM-5 pathological personality trait model. Narcissistic grandiosity and narcissistic vulnerability in psychotherapy, Pathological Narcissism and Narcissistic Personality Disorder, Initial Construction and Validation of the Pathological Narcissism Inventory. For instance, Horton et al. Kanye West 9. Mental health professionals' perceived clinical 225 utility of the ICD-10 vs. ICD-11 classification of personality disorders. Perhaps one of the most understated qualities of the female malignant narcissist is the pleasure and joy she takes in bringing down others. However, the findings of this study need to be cautiously interpreted as it can be argued that the partial assessment of an already unidimensional aspect of narcissism is measuring entitled individuals and not necessarily narcissistic individuals. Miley Cyrus 7. The Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) is the most commonly used measure of the trait. A. The ultimate femme fatale? However, closer observation reveals that, not only are correlations only weak to moderate, but that the major limitation with this study is the measure of parental pampering used only represents each parenting type with a single item. It therefore uses a dimensional classification of personality pathology, rather than counting symptoms to inform a diagnosis. These ideas resonate with those of Haaken (1983), who argued that early disturbances in empathy by the caregiver, and gender socialisation, more likely produces borderline conditions for women and narcissistic personality disorders for men, a conclusion suggesting that gender issues lead to significant differences in personality pathology in men and women. In 1986, Oleary and Wright noted that these types of narcissism resemble stereotypical characterisations of male and female qualities in Western culture. A narcissist will remember what you say you like, enjoy, or have a passion about and suddenly incorporate everything you like into his preferences, choices, and decisions. Alternatively, they may feel entitled to exert coercion and manipulation as a means to gain control over their partners. which is currently overlooked by the DSM and tends to be more prevalent in women; Grijalva et al., 2015). Androgyny as synthetic narcissism: Sex role measures and kohut's psychology of the self. Although extensive, the research on narcissism across clinical theory and empirical research (DSM/NPI) is characterised by a relative ignorance regarding how gender disparities manifest in narcissistic expression, behaviour and functioning. Results indicated that, for women, only the exploitativeness/entitlement factor of narcissism significantly correlated with aggression (i.e. The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Recollections of parenting styles in the development of narcissism: The role of gender. Although internal and underlying psychological phenomenology (e.g., fragmented sense of self, interpersonal impairment and self-esteem dysregulation) are most likely experienced by both males and females, it is likely outward expressions of narcissism would differ by gender. Refining the construct of narcissistic personality disorder: Diagnostic criteria and subtypes. Philipson (1985) argued that narcissism emerges as a result of a failure in empathetic responses from the mother, consequently resulting in a deficient internalised structure of the self for both genders. Twenge J. M., Konrath S., Bushman B. J., Foster J. D., Campbell W. K. (2008). These disparities have been poorly calibrated across the fields of psychiatry, clinical, and social/personality literature, reflecting enduring disagreement among clinicians and experts with regard to the central features of narcissism. government site. This suggests a mismatch between the presentation of grandiose narcissism (i.e. Paris J., Chenard-Poirier M.-P., Biskin R. (2013). Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Indeed, the tendency for females to exhibit the more subtle, internally hidden and vulnerable expressions of narcissistic pathology seem more prominent and have been observed in the psychoanalytic literature (Onofrei, 2009; Robinson & Graham, 2004; Ronningstam, 2006). Lilly Singh. (2012). 1. Ridiculing you. Results showed that recalled accounts of overprotectiveness by the father was a significant positive predictor of both grandiose and vulnerable narcissism in males, whereas retrospective reports of warmth parenting by the mother significantly negatively predicted unique variance in vulnerable narcissism in females. (2016) sought to address the complex nature of IPV by assessing grandiose narcissism, emotion regulation and attitudes towards aggression over a two month period. Watson P. J., Biderman M. D., Boyd C. (1989). Caligor E., Levy K. N., Yeomans F. E. (2015). Contrary to expectations, though, females who also behaved consistently with their gender (i.e., femininity) exhibited more narcissistic traits. This is, specifically, whether it warrants its own place as a fully independent personality disorder construct rather than simply being a subtype of NPD, or if it is better suited as being a part of the BPD construct. Toward a Model for Assessing Level of Personality Functioning in DSM5, Part II: Empirical Articulation of a Core Dimension of Personality Pathology, Unraveling the paradoxes of narcissism: A dynamic self-regulatory processing model, Shame and gender issues in pathological narcissism. This is followed by a discussion regarding the existing gaps in theory and research, and suggestions for embedding the study of gender differences in narcissism within a theoretical framework that integrates empirically and clinically derived concepts of the construct. By Kristen Porter Updated on June 21, 2023 Sharing is caring! Ryan K. M., Weikel K., Sprechini G. (2008). Manipulative: People with this personality disorder will take advantage of others. Narcissism and observed communication in couples. 1. Odetari Heffy. According to Kohuts theory, the pathological narcissist develops narcissistic defences to repel feelings of inadequacy that occur when the grandiose self is not mirrored by others, or when the individual becomes consumed by their own grandiose self-expectations. This gender difference supported previous speculations suggesting that females may pursue their narcissistic goals in more discreet and indirect ways (e.g., Campbell & Miller, 2012; Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001). Based on the above, it is important to acknowledge both the relative unawareness of understanding and approaching narcissistic pathology through the lens of gender, and how this unawareness has contributed to a poor clinical utility of NPD (e.g., low prevalence rates, diagnostic overlap, a lack of sufficient vulnerability). This has led to a specific acknowledgement in the DSM-5 manual stating that Although these differences in prevalence probably reflect real gender differences in the presence of such patterns, clinicians must be cautious not to over diagnose or under diagnose certain personality disorders in females or in males because of social stereotypes about typical gender roles and behaviours (American Psychiatric Association, 2013, p. 648).